Foragers

(hunter-gatherers)

Pastoralists

(herders)

Horticulturalists

(slash-and-burn)

Agriculturalists

(farmers)

population density

lowest

low

low to moderate

highest

community size

small

small

small

large (towns and cities develop among agriculturalists)

permanence of settlement

nomadic or semi-nomadic

nomadic or semi-nomadic

more sedentary, though communities may move after several years

permanent communities

food shortages

infrequent

frequent

infrequent

frequent (famine is common)

leisure time

most free time

intermediate amount of free time (varies seasonally)

intermediate amount of free time (varies seasonally)

least free time, extremely labor-intensive

trade

minimal

very important

minimal

very important

full-time craft specialists

none

some

none or few

many (high degree of specialization)

accumulation of goods

minimal

minimal but more than foragers

more than pastoralists

extremely high

wealth differences

none

moderate

generally minimal

considerable

political leadership

informal, decisions through consensus

part- and full-time political officials

part- and full-time political officials

Many full-time political officials, extremely hierarchical

land requirements

vast

vast

high but less than foragers and pastoralists

moderate (lower than the others)

gender oppression

negligible

marked

negligible

extreme